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How Do Farmers Observe the Health of Their Soil and What Tools do they Use? PART B The farmer should observe closely the biological activity of farm soil. As in the physical aspects, all information should be written down in the farm's records for use in analysis and decision-making. Organic matter content should normally be measured in laboratory tests, but you can make a visual evaluation. Darker brown soil generally implies higher humus content. Dig up some soil and look for white threads of fungal mycelia and undecomposed organic matter. The absence of crop residues from the previous growing season within a few weeks of the new crop indicates the soil is biologically active. If residues are still present, you need to stimulate more soil organisms. Counting earthworms is a useful indicator of biological activity and overall soil health. Avoid taking the soil from spots that would overstate the worm count, such as under mulch or close to a compost pile. It is advisable to wait until a cool time of day so worms will not be exposed to harmful conditions. The earthworm census should be taken several times each season; the season average can be used to analyse year-to-year changes in soil health. You can pick any of these alternative methods for estimating earthworm population: Dig out everything in a 12-in x 12-in x 6-in (30.5-cm x 30.5-cm x 15.2-cm) plot and place in a pan or bucket. Good healthy soil should contain 10 or more earthworms in a sample this size. Dig out a "spade-split" of soil, about 2-in (5-cm) wide and 8-in (20-cm) deep (the spade blade serves as length). There should be several spade-splits taken from each field, and the average for the field is calculated. For each spade-split, one earthworm is roughly equivalent to 100,000 worms per acre (247,000 worms per hectare). This is the simplest: just count the number of earthworm holes (marked by the earthworm castings beside them) in a designated area. The same area should be used for subsequent counts during the season, to make the year-to-year numbers comparable. Plant root condition can be considered an ultimate indicator of soil health. Examine the roots of a weed or a growing plant. If you dig up a plant, take care to cut off the least possible portion of its root mass. Select the healthiest-looking specimen in the area and evaluate. Are roots well-branched and vigorous? It is desirable for roots to penetrate as much soil area as possible. The estimated volume and depth of the root mass in the area, tracked over the course of the season, indicates changes in the soil biological health. Are fine root hairs plentiful? The presence of many fine feeder roots indicates good air circulation in the root zone. Are roots spreading out in every direction, or are they growing sideways at some point? A sudden change of direction sideways indicates the presence of an impenetrable hardpan underground. Legume crops should contain a good number of nodules, which are the living areas of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Slice open some nodules and check the colour inside. A healthy nodule presents a pink or red colour; green or black indicates lack of bacterial activity (although this may be the temporary normal colour, when the plant is entering its dormant phase). The more and the bigger the nodules, the more nitrogen the plant can fix. Beans and peas normally have fewer nodules than clover and alfalfa. Close, regular, and accurate observation and recording of information about the soil's physical and biological condition, combined with crop health and yield records, provides a sound basis for evaluating the fertility improvement program. How Do Farmers Observe the Health of their Soil and What Tools do they Use? PART A Farmers know that soil health is critical to their success. They thus learn to observe nature keenly and to use their observations for refining their farm management practices. Written records are important tools and the farmer should use them to keep track of all information about individual fields. It is easy to evaluate the general tilth and physical aspects of the soil even without using precision instruments. It helps to repeat some tests one or more times a year to see the progress of your soil-improvement program. Texture influences water and nutrient-holding ability. Get a handful of moist soil and squeeze it into a ball. If it falls apart when you open your hand, the soil is sandy. If it remains a ball, squeeze some of it between your fingers and form as long a ribbon as possible, and measure it. If making a ribbon is not possible, the soil is loamy sand. Add some water to the ribbon in your hand until it becomes liquid mud. Feel the mud with the forefinger of the other hand and decide if it is mostly gritty, mostly smooth, or equal parts of both. Soil that forms a ribbon shorter than 1" is sandy loam if it feels mostly gritty, silty loam if mostly smooth and, loam if equally smooth and gritty. A ribbon of soil 1-2" long is sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, and silty clay, respectively. Moisture readings should be taken when the crop is started and several times afterwards. If soil moisture down to a six-inch depth is less than 50%, you will need to add water. Look at the soil for signs of dryness (crusting, cracking, etc.) and see how far down before soil gets darker, indicating more moisture. Get a few handfuls from various depths and squeeze firmly. If your hand gets wet, the soil is saturated. Moisture is probably 25-50% if light-textured soil does not form a ball, medium-textured soil tends to crumble but holds under pressure, and heavy-textured soil is somewhat pliable and balls with pressure. Drainage problems are easily detected. Fill a 12-inch deep, 6-inch diameter hole with water and let the water drain completely. When the water is gone, fill the hole again and observe how long complete draining takes this time. If it takes more than eight hours, drainage is an immediate problem to address. Water infiltration rate gives you an idea of soil porosity. Bring one quart of water, a tape measure, and a stopwatch. The test should be done when the soil is equally dry and wet. At soil level, empty the water and count how many seconds it takes to soak into the ground. Measure the diameter of the wet spot and multiply the diameter by the time. Test the soil several times during the growing season, using exactly one quart of water each time. Over the years, subtle changes become apparent. A declining trend indicates an improving capability to absorb water. Structure and size of soil aggregates and how well they hold together are important aspects of tilth. Soil with good structure holds about two times more water than soil of the same texture but with poor structure. Get some soil and observe how it crumbles in your hand. If well structured, heavy soil still crumbles easily whilst light soil keeps some shape without becoming powdery. If poorly structured, heavy soil resists crumbling whilst light soil becomes powdery. Evaluate aggregate stability by placing several large crumbs (up to one-half inch) in a glass filled with water. If many crumbs hold together, the soil has good structure. Why Buffer Weedicides and How Do You Do It? Weeds are considered significant threats to natural ecosystems. To the farmer, weeds are also a major threat to farm economics. Weeds interfere with crop growth, choke pastures and may even harm farm animals. Being plants themselves, they compete with crops for soil nutrients and water, leading to poorly growing crops and reduced harvests. A quick, cost-effective way to combat weed invasions is to apply weedicide. These are dangerous chemicals, however, and you need to provide for adequate protection to prevent the weedicide from drifting to other places in the farm or, worse, to your neighbours. To limit the extent of weedicide drift on adjacent areas, farmers usually block off an area between the zone to be sprayed and the zones to be protected from drift. This is called the buffer zone. In many cases, the buffer zone consists of vegetation -- a stand of tall grasses, shrubs, or trees; sometimes, a strip of paddock left alone without spraying can serve as buffer. It is usually located downwind relative to the sprayed zone, since chemical droplets are wind-borne. Vegetative buffer zones help localise the drift of sprayed weedicide by catching on their leaves and other plant surfaces (stems, flowers, etc.) the spray droplets carried in the air. There are limits to their filtering capacity as, for instance, when the wind is blowing too strongly; they also cannot capture fine vapours or odours of the chemical. When establishing a vegetative buffer zone, it is preferable to select plants with numerous surfaces that present small frontal areas to the droplets. Filters normally work better when there is more surface area available to catch the target particles, and the same is true for vegetative buffers. Thus, plants with needle-like foliage and plenty of small branches are better at capturing droplets. Large leaves may still be suitable if the surfaces are covered with small hairs or other protrusions. To guard against having gaps in the lower portions of the vegetative buffer, mixed plantings may be done to have different heights of vegetation. The buffer zone design should try to achieve the maximisation of surface area for droplet capture and, simultaneously, the minimisation of interference with the direction of airflow around the barrier. The objective of reducing airflow deviation differs somewhat from that of shelterbelts, which seek to change the wind direction away from the leeward side. Having a slight wind passing through the buffer will increase the chances for droplet capture. This argues for a vegetative buffer with adequate porosity to allow the air stream to pass through the barrier instead of above or around it. Wind experiments have established that a porous buffer is able to capture greater amounts of droplets than a solid buffer. This finding suggests that the height of the vegetative buffer should be significantly higher than the height at which the weedicide spray is released. The rule of thumb is that a buffer should be at least two times higher than the release height. For instance, if one is hand-spraying weedicide at a release height of 1.5 metres, the vegetative buffer should be a minimum 3 metres high. It has been calculated that the 2:1 ratio in heights provides spray drift protection equivalent to 3-10 buffer heights downwind. More amounts of spray drift will be intercepted when the vegetative buffer is located closer to the release point. Why Higher Brix Readings in Forage Makes Animal Raising More Profitable? The Brix reading on a plant is an indication of its nutrient content. Whilst the reading is often considered as the sugar content in that part of the plant being tested, it actually refers to the total amount of soluble solids, that is, sugars along with plant proteins, vitamins, and minerals. The higher the Brix reading the greater is the amount of nutrients. A Brix reading lower than 10 tells the farmer that the plant lacks nutrients. It must be said that although there may be an abundant supply of nutrients in the soil, it is still common to get low Brix readings. The desirable reading is one above 12, which indicates a robust and nutrient-rich plant. In addition to high nutrient content, high Brix indicates a bigger specific gravity and less water in the plant fluids. High-Brix plants have also been observed to demonstrate greatly improved resistance against the majority of insects that feed on plant sap such as aphids, cucumber beetles, white flies, potato beetles, leafhoppers and other sap suckers. If people were to eat high Brix foods, they would obtain much more nutrition than from low Brix foods from equal quantities. It can happen that less amounts of high Brix food will be needed to provide the same level of nutrition they are getting now. The same thing would be happen among livestock and other animals. Merlin Nussbaum, a farmer of 20 years' experience and currently working as an agricultural consultant, has worked with many farmers rearing livestock and producing animal feeds. In his work, he has seen first-hand the more effective resistance to pests in high Brix crops. Nussbaum still remembers a crop of alfalfa that registered a Brix reading of 16 a few years ago (the consistent observation among savvy farmers is that plants with at least 12 Brix exhibit high pest resistance). In this particular alfalfa field, the consultant distinctly observed that there were many leafhoppers massing on the boundaries but the insects simply would not enter the field. The absence of infestation in the alfalfa field resulted in a large yield and greater profitability for the crop. If this had been a forage crop, the farmer would have reaped a very nutritious and bountiful harvest. Such a harvest would have provided a lot of nutrients at a low effective cost when fed to livestock. The animals would achieve good body weights from a lower-cost feed input, making the enterprise much more profitable. It has also been observed that when given high Brix grass, cows eat only half of the amount of grass they would eat when fed low Brix grass. The pasture, which had a high Brix, consisted of various grasses including fescue and timothy. In this case, the cost of forage fed to the cows was immediately reduced by half. Dairy cattle fed with high Brix grasses increased the quantity of their milk production. The cattle were healthier because of the nutritious food, resulting in vastly lower veterinary bills for the farmer. In addition, the milk produced had a yellower, creamier colour, a desirable quality attributed to more carotene contained in the high Brix grass. High Brix forage thus increases production in farm animals even as it lowers production costs. The combination of these factors adds up to more profits for the farmer. The Detrimental Effects of Chemicals on Soil Fungi Fungi and bacteria in the soil are the primary recyclers of nutrients in the soil. Whilst bacteria are much more numerous, fungi provide greater biomass because they are relatively bigger. Fungi may be responsible for greater amounts of nutrient retention and soil organic matter formation than bacteria. Decomposers. Saprophytes play key roles in SOM production because of their ability to help decompose both plant and animal remains, including animal dung. Animal hair, hooves, claws and feathers become food for particular fungal species, and many moulds thrive on animal droppings. A succession of saprophytes colonise debris on the ground. Sugar fungi break down simple sugars but not the complex sugar chains known as cellulose and hemicelluloses, or the lignins that hold them together. Sugar fungi are eventually replaced by brown rot fungi, which digest cellulose and hemicelluloses and, when they have accomplished their work, leave behind a brown, crumbly residue rich in lignin. The white rot fungi that replace them have the ability to digest lignin, the residue most resistant to decomposition, and leave behind wood strips that look bleached and stringy. Parasites. Parasitic fungi can seriously damage crop plants. The presence of a host plant is necessary for parasitic fungi to proliferate. Normally, they are specific to certain crops or species, but some can affect several plant species. Continuous planting of the host plant will encourage growth of parasitic fungi, so it is important to promote high biodiversity in farm soils. Mutualists. Called mycorrhizae (myco=fungi; rhizo=root), these fungi invade plant roots but form mutually beneficial relationships which result in better plant nutrition. Many plants probably cannot survive without the mychorrhizae. They extract sugars from plant roots to obtain energy. In exchange, plants gain a lot more in terms of root protection from soil-borne disease-causing organisms and parasites, and better growth rates. Mychorrhizae also produce glomalin, a type of protein, which is important in soil aggregate formation. Glomalin acts as a glue to bind plant cells, fungi, bacteria and microorganisms with soil particles to form larger particles of organic matter which help in providing good soil porosity, promoting water infiltration, and facilitating drainage. At least 90% of agricultural plants form symbiotic relations with mycorrhizae. In terms of interaction with cultivated plants, the mycorrhizae would be of greatest interest to farmers. Mycorrhizae promote root development, increase uptake of nutrient elements (especially nitrogen and phosphorus), protect plants against pests, diseases and drought, and improve soil aggregation. The detrimental effects to farm soil, and consequently farm yields, from the use of chemicals involve the mycorrhizae. Insecticides and systemic fungicides can decimate mychorrhizal populations when applied, while herbicides may remove plants that affect fungi distribution. Methyl bromide, a broad-spectrum biocide, is usually used to kill parasitic nematodes and pathogenic fungi, but it also kills mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhizae also become ineffective in soil conditions where nutrient levels are very high or very low. In very low nutrient-level conditions, their sugar extraction activity from plants has a parasitic effect. Their effectiveness is reduced when there is a good supply of phosphorus. Generally, mycorrhizae are most efficient in soils of relatively low fertility that receive little inorganic fertiliser. They are also quite active in soils with ample organic matter, where crops are rotated but with little or no tillage. If You Are Using Chemical Fertilizers, How do these Affect Brix Meters results? People today are more conscious about the nutrition content of the foods they eat. Farmers who are able to provide highly nutritious food will receive premium prices and have many repeat customers. Farmers can have food labs test for the nutrition content of their produce. The nutrients of interest in such tests may include calcium, selenium, magnesium, iron and perhaps others. The only drawback is that testing costs money and the more elements tested, the higher the cost. A simpler and more inexpensive field test for nutrient content is the Brix meter reading on a plant's sap or juice. Brix readings on plant juice/sap are a measure of something fundamental and unique to plants -- photosynthesis. Plants are the only creatures on earth that use water and carbon dioxide with sunlight and chlorophyll to produce sugar. Everything harvested in the farm, every carton or ton of yield, originates from this sugar. But it is not only sugar that is found in brix; there are also vitamins, amino acids, and other nutrients. The brix level is an accurate indicator of the nutrient density of a crop at the time the reading is taken. As a provider of food and promoter of health, the farmer needs to manage things to raise the brix value on the growing crop. Regular brix readings will give the farmer the chance to react -- that is, to apply the fertility practices necessary to increase the brix reading (therefore, the nutrient value) of the crop. According to Dr. Carey Reams, a renowned agricultural consultant who was the first to devise a reference index of "poor" to "excellent" brix readings for crop juices, it does not matter much to the plant where a nutrient comes from, i.e., whether the nitrogen, for example, is from an organic source or from chemical fertilisers. The important thing is that the nutrient applied in the fertiliser is the substance the plant needs at the time. If the chemical fertiliser has the nutrients the plant needs, the brix reading will rise. If the brix remains unaltered or falls, the substance is not the nutrient needed, or may be in an unusable form, or is detrimental to the plant. It is important, according to Reams, that the farmer be methodical in applying the chemical fertilisers. It is not enough, for example, that the farmer simply scatters a certain number of pounds or tonnes of ammonium nitrate on a given area. He developed a method for calculating the exact amount of energy released by one molecule of ammonium, which could then be used to determine the amount of fertiliser to apply. Reams' method helps farmers to avoid the common mistakes of conventional farming with chemical fertilisers, where excess amounts are likely to be applied which leads to waste and ground water contamination. But if too little is applied, the yield on the crop will be limited. Brix readings will rise significantly when too much nitrogen-rich fertiliser is applied relative to the actual needs of the crop. But the pest-resistance phenomenon often observed in plants with high brix will not happen; the crop will attract a lot of pests instead. Plants high in nitrates have too many free amino acids circulating in their system, waiting to be synthesised into complete proteins. These free amino acids attract insects, which prefer them over complete proteins. The farmer should target for brix readings of at least 12. The key to heavy crop yields is to ensure that nutrients are supplied in the right quantities and in the forms plants can use. How Do Plants Get Nutrients in the Soil in a Conventional Farming System? Plants need an adequate supply of nutrients -- particularly nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium -- to grow well. Ideally, these nutrients should be available in the proper quantity and at the time the plant can use them. This ideal timing, if complied with, will help farmers avoid supplying an excess of nutrients that plants cannot use anyway and may become contaminants in the environment instead. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are the nutrient elements most needed in large amounts by plants; however, they are not available in adequate amounts in the soil. Nitrogen is important for plants because it is a component of proteins and chlorophyll, the active pigment in photosynthesis; it is a constituent of nucleic acids and coenzymes that catalyse cell reactions. Phosphorus is also found in proteins, coenzymes, and nucleic acids; it is critical in metabolism and chemical energy generation and utilisation in the cells. Whilst its role is not clearly defined as a component of the various chemical compounds that make up the plant, potassium is important in the physiological mechanisms that regulate plant processes, particularly the all important processes of photosynthesis and carbohydrate translocation. In conventional farming systems, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are supplied to the soil by application of inorganic fertilisers at levels recommended by soil testing technicians. The caveat is that variable conditions in the soil and the climate affect the rate of uptake or loss of nutrients in ways not yet fully understood. The ability to forecast factors that influence the storage, cycling, availability and uptake of nutrients is still relatively inadequate. This makes it difficult to predict the proper, environmentally safe levels of nutrients. Consequently, the application recommendations that farmers receive may just as easily lead either to insufficient or excessive fertilisation. Working out the appropriate dosage amounts to apply may be tricky. Phosphorus fertiliser undergoes rapid conversion into less soluble compounds in acidic or alkaline soil, which then severely limits their availability for plant nutrition. Even if they are in available forms, the phosphorus may be tightly bound to organic soil compounds and clay, and remain locked in soil, inaccessible by plants. On the other hand, potassium and nitrogen (in its ammonium and nitrate forms) have greater solubility than phosphorus. Nitrate ions will leach readily into the soil, thus nutrient applications are susceptible to significant losses. Potassium and ammonium nitrogen are positively charged and are held on by negatively charged soil in the cation exchange, thus leaching will not occur in appreciable amounts except in sandy soils. Whilst there is understanding of the basic process, agriculture scientists need more information about nutrient cycling and nitrogen behaviour under various environmental conditions. As a result of this difficulty, it is not surprising -- and many studies have found -- that recommended fertiliser doses worked out by some commercial soil testing laboratories consistently required far more fertiliser than was needed. Not only that, some farmers tend to apply greater amounts of nitrogen than recommended. However, with susceptibility to leaching and/or rapid conversion into insoluble forms, there is still no guarantee that the fertilisers will still be available to plants at the time plants have need for them. Soil Testing: A General Overview It is important for farmers to monitor the health of the soil, which produces the plants from which farmers make their living. One of the critical activities in this regard is periodic soil testing. Ideally, soil samples for soil testing are done shortly before making a land management decision -- which may be several months in advance of planting. The results represent the most current indication of soil properties, giving enough time for the objectives of the decision to have impact. For example, to see if limestone should be added to correct soil acidity, soil testing should be done several months before planting to give the limestone sufficient lead-time to react with the soil. Soil testing well in advance of planting provides leeway to make changes if unsuitable growing conditions are found. Sampling depth is crucial, and this depends on your planned crop and the type of soil test to be carried out. Routine soil tests usually require samples obtained from topsoil (0-20 cm depth), but soil tests for mobile soil nutrients (such as NO3-N and SO4-S) may require samples from deeper levels. When collecting subsoil samples take care to avoid contaminating the subsoil with topsoil; contamination can seriously throw off the results and the ensuing recommendations. There are three types of soil tests: chemical, physical and biological. Chemical testing helps determine the soil chemical properties that might constrain plant growth. In chemical tests, the analyst assesses the nutrient-supplying capacity and other chemical properties of the soil known to influence plant growth such as pH, soluble salts, and soil organic matter (SOM) content. The most common methods in use are extraction, equilibration, titration (usually for acidity measurements) and oxidation (by chemical or thermal means, to test for SOM). In chemical extraction, soil samples are dried, ground to fine particles and sieved. Usually, 1 to 10 grams of sample are placed in an extracting vessel and mixed with an extracting solution of pre-determined volume (from 10 to 100mL). The mixture is shaken vigorously for about 5 (or up to 30) minutes and poured through a filter. The analyst then examines the filtrate for the elements of interest. Equilibration involves adding a solution to the soil and, after shaking or letting stand the resulting soil suspension for a short time period, measuring some property of the mixture. Soil pH, lime requirement and soluble salts are measured using this method, although some laboratories may alternatively use titration techniques to measure soil acidity. Wet chemical oxidation measures SOM from the quantity of carbon that can be oxidised by potassium chromate (K2Cr2O7). Issues about the environmental impact of chromium use and disposal have led to the growing popularity of thermal oxidation, using high temperatures (360oC or 680oF) to estimate SOM from the differences in sample weight before and after ignition. Physical tests assess the physical properties of soil that influence growth. The most common test in use is the evaluation of particle size of soil and its distribution. Water-holding capacity may be tested in particular situations, to determine water movement and retention, which help in assessing irrigation potential and setting irrigation schedules. Biological tests are important because the level of biological activity in soil substantially affects plant growth. It is also essential to know if plant pathogens are present in the soil. Earthworms, tiny organisms, and microscopic fungi and bacteria all contribute to a growth-promoting soil environment. Organism activity can also serve as an indication of the state of the soil ecosystem, since they simultaneously influence and are influenced by the physical and chemical condition of the soil. How to Find Healthy Soil & Biological Soil Testing Modern agriculture has placed greater emphasis on the development of sustainable farming systems. This has led to greater interest in farm management practices that promote the biological aspects of soil fertility. To help farmers in this regard, many approaches to soil biology testing have been developed, which can be classified into tests for population analysis, biological activity, and indirect indicators. Population tests look at the types and numbers of organisms present in the soil. How Do You Do A Chemical Soil Test? Chemical analysis is the most common method used to assess the nutrient content (and nutrient needs) of soil. An accurate determination of nutrient need is possible if two conditions are satisfied: first, that the soil sample is truly representative of the field to be analysed; and, second, that the chemical testing method has been calibrated through enough research to the crops and soils in the area. The farmer may choose to take soil samples either by soil type or on a grid basis. Soil-type sampling involves making a diagram of the field by soil type and obtaining a composite sample of each type. The composite sample may consist of 10 to 15 individual cores of each type which are thoroughly mixed together. From this mix, about 1 pint (0.5L) or 1 pound (0.4kg) is submitted to the lab for testing. This process is done for each soil type present in the field. Grid sampling involves dividing the area into squares of 1.2 to 2.0 ha (3-5 acres) and taking from each square a composite sample consisting of 8 core samples thoroughly mixed together. Contamination of samples should be avoided. The lab may also want historical information about the field, such as cropping history for two years or more, previous applications of fertiliser or manure, yield levels, etc. It is advisable to have the samples analysed by a reputable lab whose technicians are well-acquainted with the soils and crops in the farm's locality. The information generated from the chemical tests gives an indication of the soil quality in the field. Soil organic matter (SOM). Labs use chemical or thermal oxidation of the total soil to determine SOM. Since the carbon content of SOM is typically around 58-60%, a factor of 1.7-1.72 is used to convert soil organic carbon content into SOM. An organic carbon content value of 0.8%, for example, translates into an organic matter content of 0.8% x 1.7 = 1.36%. Larger values of SOM are desirable because SOM enhances water retention as well as nutrient retention properties of soil, making these available to plants. The lab will have to indicate an optimal SOM value for your area. SOM values that decline over time indicate deterioration in quality. Soil reaction (pH). The soil reaction or pH value, measured from soil slurry, is dependent on the type and quantities of organic and inorganic materials. However, environmental and management action also affect pH. Excessive nitrogen fertilisation makes soil acidic, whilst poor management of irrigation can induce alkalinity in soil. A soil pH analysis gives data about active acidity (or the hydrogen ion H+ in solution); in contrast, a test for lime requirement evaluates the reserve acidity (or the buffering ability) and provides an accurate guidance on how much lime to apply to a particular field. Nutrient Availability. Soils can be analysed for virtually all nutrients but within limits. The more routine chemical tests are for phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and manganese -- all of which significantly influence plant growth. There are specific tests tailored to specific soil types and crops. A recommended test will generate data expressed in units of nutrient content per hectare (e.g. kg/ha), and these values will be compared with an appropriate scale defined by local technicians. Chemical soil testing may have the most accurate results in soil testing because they entail precise measurements of nutrients detected in the soil. Selection of the method is a decision made by the lab scientists, depending on the facilities available to them. The farmer's role is to submit the most representative, contamination-free samples of the soil in their fields. How Brix Meters Work! It is important to monitor regularly the health of the soil as well as the plants that grow on it. Good soil nutrition helps plants resist disease and insect infestation, leading to better 'keeping' qualities, nutritional values, and flavour characteristics. The practice helps to assure high quality produce which attract the best prices. Exhaustive soil analysis is certainly necessary, but this is tedious laboratory work. To have a portable, easy-to-maintain system of tracking the progress of the crop, the farmer needs a handy tool. There is one such instrument -- the refractometer, also called a Brix meter, because it reads the Brix value of a liquid. The Brix value indicates the level of total dissolved solids -- vitamins, minerals, and other soluble compounds but mostly sugars -- in a liquid such as the sap from the leaves and other plant parts. The Brix can also be interpreted as an indication of the nutrient uptake and therefore the health of the plant. Within the same plant species, the crop with a higher Brix value will contain more sugars, minerals and proteins, and less water. This means the crop will taste sweeter and be more mineral-nutritious. Harvested crops with high sugar content lose less water in storage and better resist frost damage and post-harvest disease. Using Brix meters To text Brix content, squeeze some juice from a chosen part of the plant. Drip the fresh liquid on the inclined glass plane of the Brix meter. Hold the instrument against the light and look through the viewfinder for the number (between 0 and 32) indicating the sugar content reading. The higher the reading the higher the sugar content; this is good for the plant. Between varieties and species of plants, Brix readings can be very different. Some varieties consistently give low Brix values, regardless of how they are grown. Such varieties are likely to be the most vulnerable to disease and insects. When taking samples of the crop area, it is vital to compare data from the healthy (normal), weak and super-growing plants. Data from disease-affected or pest-infested areas should also be compared with data from non-affected areas. In a single plant, Brix values will vary considerably depending on the source of the sample -- mature or young leaves, mature or immature fruit, growing points, petioles, etc. Some organic farming technicians choose petioles (newly mature leaves) since they exude plenty of sap and do not have wide swings in Brix. Once a plant part has been chosen, all sampling should be taken from that portion. Since sunlight affects photosynthetic activity, sampling should be done always from the same side of the plant. Other things to watch for are the following: Samples should be taken from at least 20 plants, all of identical physiological age. On each sampling date, the samples should come from the same plants. Sampling time is critical and should be done always at the same time of day. Sugar production/storage activity is most active between late morning and early afternoon, so many growers sample during the 10a.m.-12p.m. period. It is not advisable at all to sample in the evening, or when temperatures are above 100oF (37.8oC). Weather (sunlight, drought, extreme heat, heavy rains, etc.) has significant impact on sugar accumulation. It is important to make notes on weather conditions for every sampling date to help analyse for weather-related changes in Brix values. "Rudolf Steiner" in Relation to Biodynamics Rudolf Steiner was an Austrian philosopher, architect, esotericist, educator and social thinker born in the early 1861 and died in the early 1925. Steiner achieved initial acknowledgment as a cultural philosopher and literary reviewer. After the First World War was over, Steiner strived to find realistic demonstrations of his philosophy in collaboration with educationalists, farmers, medical doctors and other fields. He instituted biodynamic agriculture, Waldorf education and anthroposophical medicine among other numerous biodynamics aspects. Biodynamics or biodynamic agriculture encompasses a sustainable and ecological farming technique that comprise of many thoughts of organic farming. In the year 1924, an assembly of farmers anxious about the prospect of farming requested Steiner' to assist them. Steiner acted in response with a series of lectures about agriculture. This formed the foundation of biodynamic agriculture, which is now widely practiced all through much of North America, Europe and Australasia. A vital concept of the lectures was to "personalize" the ranch or farm by carrying no or a small number of external materials for use on the farm. However, the farmers generated all needed resources such as animal feed, manure or fertilizer from within and referred to it as "farm organism". There were various characteristics of biodynamic agriculture moved by the lectures given by Steiner. This includes the timing of activities, for instance, planting in accordance with the patterns of the planets or moon's movement. This must have been developed in precise ways, to compost piles, plants and soil with the objective of appealing to non-physical life forms and essential forces. Steiner further advocated for the farmers to scientifically verify the suggestions that he had put across in the lectures since he had not verified. In the earlier years of the twentieth century, adoption of conventional agriculture gained momentum with the use of nitrogen based inorganic fertilizers. These were manufactured through condensation of nitrogen from the air and consequently applying it to the fields. Steiner believed this chemical farming was detrimental to the environment and clearly stated that application of chemical fertilizers is an action that must be stopped. This was because the crops grown on the field after a period of time ended up losing their nutritional values as a completely general law. Steiner was certain that chemical farming through the use of pesticides and artificial fertilizers would lead to the degradation in the food quality produced. Steiner also believed this was not only because of the biological or chemical nature relating to the materials involved. He believed that it was also caused by the divine inadequacies in the entire chemical move towards farming. Steiner believed in monism, which considered the mutually exclusive material and spiritual nature of each and everything in the world. Steiner believed that there is a sharp difference between living and dead matter, thus synthetic nutrients were very much different from the living microbial made nutrients. The name " biodynamic" or "biologically dynamic" was carried forward by Steiner's supporters. The core aspect of biodynamics hold that, farm in its entirety is viewed as an organism and consequently ought to be a bunged self-nourishing organism, which the measures nourish. Ailment of organisms is not tackled in isolation since it is an indicator of problems in the whole life form. Rudolf Steiner is applauded for establishing various aspects of biodynamics that have proved to be very useful to educationalists, farmers and medical doctors at large. Discover the Secrets to Worms Back in antiquity, Aristotle called them the "intestines of the Earth," but it took several more centuries before earthworms were systematically studied -- by Charles Darwin who wrote a whole book on the importance of worms in breaking down dead organic matter, enhancing soil structure, and maintaining soil aeration, drainage and fertility. Darwin calculated that earthworms in the soil add about eleven tonnes of organic matter per acre (about 18 tonnes per hectare) each year; modern scientists believe that where worms abound they can move up to 250 tonnes per hectare per year. According to Darwin, earthworms have an acid reaction in the upper part of their digestive canal which affects the soil and organic matter passing through the canal. Calciferous glands in their gut secrete carbonates of lime, which slowly neutralise the acidic particles and eventually change the reaction to alkaline as the transiting soil reaches the lower part of the digestive canal. As earthworms feed, the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in organic matter progressively declines. Nitrogen is converted into more usable ammonium or nitrate forms; phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients are also converted into readily available forms. As various kinds of mineral and organic particles pass through the earthworm digestive canal, they get mixed very close together to form aggregates, which improve the drainage and moisture-carrying capacity of the soil. These organic matter-mineral aggregates have great water stability and enhance other characteristics of the soil. Various investigators believe that as much as 50% of aggregates found in surface layers of the soil come from earthworms. In addition to aggregates, earthworms also play very important roles in forming soils, improving soil structure and enhancing its physical characteristics. Modern agriculture utilises earthworm products in various ways. Worm composting Also called 'vermiculture,' the term refers to the production of humus from organic matter by using a combination of microorganisms and earthworms. Unlike other composting processes, worm composting does not require heat to degrade and stabilize organic material; instead, it makes use of intimate interactions between the earthworms and the microbes that live in their intestinal tract and in the organic material. Worm composting yields two economically valuable products -- vermi-cast and vermi-meal. Earthworm casts consist of remains of digested organic matter, mucous and nitrogen-derived substances. The texture of these casts is finer than can be found in traditionally composted wastes. Vermi-cast is superior to inorganic fertilisers in its ability to provide growth nutrients. Apart from the normal N-P-K (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) contents, vermi-cast delivers enzymes, beneficial microbes, and growth hormones. Vermi-meal is a protein-rich meal made from ground earthworm meat. Its protein content is about 62% with 11% fat. It can be used as an ingredient for animal feeds. Worm juice Worm juice is a special product from earthworms. It also contains some N-P-K, but its major benefit comes from its plentiful supply of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (about 100,000 CFU/ml), trace elements, and minerals all mixed in an aerated liquid and immediately available to the plant. Usually applied at the rate of 10 litres per hectare, worm juice helps the soil regain its natural capacity to provide plants with the nutrients they need in readily available form. It is also used as a foliar spray and as dressing on seed coats to increase germination rates. Worm compost tea Also known simply as 'worm tea,' this nutrient solution is a liquefied form of vermi-cast produced from worm composting, further enriched with minerals, essential plant nutrients, and all the various microorganisms so necessary to soil health and enhanced plant growth. Application is easy but it is important that worm tea be applied within 4 hours after the solution is activated. Worm tea is usually applied on the soil, plant leaves, and mulch to promote soil health. Continued use of earthworms and earthworm products will help you eliminate inorganic fertilisers and other chemicals in your farm. Getting Down and Dirty With Organic Compost The growing concern about environmental issues and unhealthy soil has induced extensive use of compost in agriculture. There are compelling reasons that make compost a better alternative to support agricultural crops production, increase yields and enrich the quality of produce. The sum of those reasons is this: compost makes soil healthy. The key to having good soil health -- and, therefore, crop health -- is to make sure it is biologically active. Only composted material can help you do tha What Stops Farmers From Making The Change From Conventional to Biological Farming? On speaking with many conventional farmers the No. 1 fear that stops change is that taking any steps from traditional practices will lead to loss of production inferior in quality and to loss of cash flow. Secondly there is a belief that a farmer needs to use a range of fertilisers, weedicides, pesticides, drenches and other inputs to keep the productivity at a peak and to keep animals healthy. This is not dissimilar from the farmer himself lining up for his annual flu injection or taking medication for high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, gout, back pain and numerous other common ailments. Thirdly, in many cases, a farmer is conditioned to follow the majority as "they" must be right. "They" being their family, fellow farmers, their suppliers, their consultants and public opinion. It is far more comfortable to be part of the mob, even if the farm is going backwards and costing more each year, than think outside the box and risk ridicule and maybe the failure that you are told about. And the last stumbling block to change is the perceived need to change their equipment and therefore it will be too expensive to change and lack of support. Let's look at these concerns: Is it possible for a conventional farmer to change to a more biologically sound way of farming, without losing production? Can you reduce or even eliminate the amount of synthetic fertilisers and other inputs as well as maintain productivity and animal health? Is it true that conventional farming practices are better because the majority of farmers farm that way? Wouldn't at least the trained advisers know what's best? Is it necessary to change the equipment and is it expensive to do so? Obviously every farm is different and each needs to be individually assessed as to the steps that need to be taken when changing so that all risks are minimized. However for all farms to be successful they must create and maintain a highly active and complex biological system in the soil. Once a highly active and complex soil system has been established all risks associated with change are minimised. For when any fertilizers or other inputs are added to the active soil food web they are caught, digested and stored in plant available form. They become part of the soil food web where the plant can access these nutrients as required. Whereas conventional farming actually destroys the active soil food web by disturbing the soil structure and destroying the microbial life. When the microbes are unable to function properly a large percentage of inputs are either unavailable to plant uptake, are washed away or taken up in the atmosphere. A bit of a waste of money, wouldn't you say? Many years ago the CSIRO actually proved that superphosphate is locked up in the soil after 6 weeks, unavailable for plant uptake until the microbes are activated again when fed such inputs as fish or kelp. The majority of farmers have many years supply of superphosphate in their soil. Organic Farming Show to be Superior to Conventional Farming Organic farming has become one of the most favoured options for the production of safe, highly nutritious food and long-term sustainability. The market for the produce from organic farms is growing, especially as consumers have become more aware of food-safety issues, environmental preservation and wildlife protection. Organic farming is practiced in over 100 countries worldwide, and, as of 2007, there were over 26 million hectares managed under organic farming techniques. Of this total, Australia had the biggest share (43.3%) with its 11.3 million hectares; Argentina was a distant second with 2.8 million hectares. From its inception, the position of organic farming has been against large-scale, chemical-farming agriculture. The debate between organic farming and chemical farming is far from settled. Some of the points involved are described below. Natural controls of insect pests and diseases An organic-farming system does not use synthetic chemicals, including inorganic fertilisers, insecticides, fungicides and herbicides. To keep pests at acceptable levels, natural pesticides may be used. Chemical-farming advocates say natural pesticides are crude and are actually improved upon by synthetic pesticides, and that the distinction between the two is arbitrary. Organic-farming advocates point out that pest control in organic farms is achieved by encouraging the presence of predators and natural enemies of pests, following crop rotation, using cover crops, and growing healthier plants; natural pesticides (such as soybean oil, rotenone and pyrethrum) are only used as the last resort. Research from the early 1990s has shown that organic farms have lower populations of insect pests than conventional farms or that there is little difference between them. A comprehensive analysis by Letourneau and Goldstein (2001) who studied organic and conventional tomato farms in California showed that there was no difference in the abundance of plant-eating animals (herbivores) but the organic farms had higher abundance and a wider variety of natural enemies to pests that affected the crops, which led to better pest control. Soil ecology Proponents have always asserted that the organic system maintains high levels of biological activity and fresh organic matter in humus, thus promoting soil health. Numerous studies investigating various aspects of soil ecology, including the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, and its ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, in organic and conventional farming systems have confirmed the claims of organic farming advocates. Some of the most significant studies involved the organic and conventional farming trials in Switzerland (called DOK trials), which covered a 21-year period. One study by Siegrist et al. (1998) found that organic plots had significantly greater earthworm biomass, soil aggregate stability, and population diversity than conventional plots. Another study by M?der et al. (2000) showed colonization of beneficial fungi was 30-60% higher among plants growing in organic farming systems, which implied that organic systems had a greater capacity to achieve plant-fungi symbiosis. Nutrient loss Many studies have shown that nitrates leach out at slower rates in organic farms than conventional farms. For example, Eltun et al. (1995) found that nitrate runoff in conventional cash crop systems in Norway was at least two times higher than in organic cash crop systems. Among farms producing forage crops, loss of nitrates in organic systems was 36% less than that in conventional systems. Soil productivity The basic criticism against organic farms is that yields are lower than conventional farms. The Swiss DOK trials found that the organic systems had 20% lower yields than the conventional systems, but it was also noted that fertilizer consumption in organic systems was 50% lower. Organic farming advocates point to the economic costs of conventional farming systems such as the cost of environmental clean-up and the depletion of non-renewable energy resources; in contrast, organic systems avoid these hidden costs. Another factor that contributes to lower yields in organic farms is the presence of weeds. Several researchers have found higher weed densities and weed biomass in organic farms compared with conventional farms. On the other hand, researchers have also reported the presence of rare and endangered weed species on mature, decades-old organic farms, which may indicate a contribution to encouraging plant biodiversity. It may not favour short-term economics but it does support long-term ecological concerns. Keywords: soil ecology, organic farming, sustainable farming, conventional farming, soil health, most profitable form of farming. Harnessing Cosmic Energy for Profitable Farming Biodynamic agriculture, or simply 'biodynamics,' is a farming system based on deep ecological principles that arose as a reaction to the spread of specialised agriculture and inorganic fertilisers at the turn of the twentieth-century. In terms of methodological beliefs, biodynamic farming stands apart from other systems with its use of nine distinct preparations, consisting of extracts from various sources (minerals, plants, and animal manure) which are applied in minute proportions to plants, the soil, or compost. In many ways, biodynamics is similar to traditional organic farming systems, especially in the biological and cultural principles guiding its farming practices. However, it is distinct from other organic farming systems because it incorporates into its farming practices certain spiritual principles that aim to tap into cosmic and non-physical forces believed to exert an enriching influence on the farm and on the living organisms (human and non-human) that inhabit it. Biodynamics thus combines biological practices, such as established organic farming methods that bolster soil health, and dynamic practices intended to enhance its metaphysical aspects (such as boosting the farm's life energy) and make the farm's rhythms coincide with Nature's (such as scheduling planting in time with the phases of the moon). In encouraging planting by lunar phases, biodynamics acknowledges that in the same manner that the Earth's tidal movements and magnetism are influenced by its relative positions to the moon and the sun, so are the phases of plant growth. The idea is that the waxing and waning moon phases exert different influences on plants. The biodynamics planting calendar recognises that in the days leading to the first quarter, the moon's gravity is weakening relative to the Earth's but intensity of moonlight is increasing. It is believed that this lunar phase induces good growth of both the root system and the leaves. Growth is increasing in a balanced manner. In the second quarter leading to the full moon, lunar gravity grows stronger relative to Earth which leads to slower root growth. But leaf growth continues to spread as moonlight approaches full intensity. If root development has been good in previous stages, the root system will be able to efficiently deliver water and nutrients to the leaves, resulting in good growth. During the third quarter period, decreasing moonlight and weakening lunar gravitation suggest different activities for the biodynamic farmer. At this stage, leaf growth slows down whilst root growth picks up again as Earth's gravity tugs at the plant's roots. The third quarter is a good time to transplant seedlings since the roots are active -- minimising shock of transplantation and enhancing development of the root system. Seeds with long germination times (more than two weeks) should be sowed at this time to put them in good position for sprouting in the subsequent new moon to first quarter period. In the fourth or last quarter, there is no moonlight and relatively stronger lunar gravity. Both root development and leaf growth will slacken. Where there was balanced surge in growth during the first quarter, there is now a balanced slowdown in growth during the last quarter. In the biodynamic planting calendar, this is a period of rest for the plant, giving it time to prepare for the next surge with the onset of the next lunar cycle. Biodynamic practices also recognise other forces beyond chemistry, physics and gravity. Vital life energy and astral forces are integral parts of biodynamic agriculture. For the biodynamic farmer, farming is not just livelihood; it is a way of life. Why is The Life in Your Soil So Important? The entire food production system depends for its viability on healthy soil. Healthy soil produces the healthy crops that give nourishment to people. Organic farming is intimately related to the concept of soil health because its advocates have always believed that a healthy soil is the key to the sustained production of healthy, nutritious food. The main indicators of soil health are the amount of fresh organic matter and the level of biological activity. Soil is a living ecosystem, and health Crops That are Productive, Profitable and Relatively Trouble Free Understand that it's the soil life: bacteria, fungi and the rest of the soil food web which convert minerals and gases into available plant food for plant roots to uptake. It is the soil life, that is, the soil's digestive system - that provides extremely complex nutrients to the plant. Even the Organic Farming versus Conventional Farming System If you are one of the 81% of farmers still farming conventionally and using chemicals and synthetic fertilizers it is completely understandable. Why? Because for decades that's what has been advocated to the farmer by the industry. There is so much ''proof'' research, trial work, field tri